What Is Epidemiology?

Epidemiology is the scientific study of how diseases and health conditions spread, affect, and can be controlled within populations. Rather than treating individual patients, epidemiologists analyze patterns, causes, and risk factors across communities to inform public health policy, disease prevention strategies, and outbreak response. The field encompasses infectious diseases, environmental health conditions, and social health factors.

The word "Epidemiology" comes from the Greek epi (among or upon), demos (the people), and logos (to study)-roughly translated as "the study of what is amongst the people." While we typically think of epidemiology in terms of human populations, the field now extends to zoology, botany, and other biosciences where disease affects population health or mortality. Modern epidemiology has its roots in biology and zoology, where some of the earliest studies of disease began. Today, epidemiology stands at the forefront of public health policy, fights to protect species threatened by disease, and drives a better quality of life for people of all ages worldwide.

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• What Is Epidemiology?
• Core Areas of Epidemiological Study
• Outbreak vs. Epidemic vs. Pandemic
• Why Epidemiology Matters: A Case Study
• The History of Epidemiology
• Current and Future Challenges
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Key Takeaways

What Is Epidemiology?

Epidemiology is a branch of medical science concerned with the spread and nature of infection and disease. It examines diseases before they reach the epidemic or pandemic stage. Rather than analyzing the structure, evolution, and genetics of a disease and the bacteria or virus that cause it-an area of study known as pathology-epidemiology examines how diseases or conditions occur, spread, and persist in a given population. Epidemiologists might investigate why a condition is prevalent in one population and not another, and the potential risks of that condition spreading to new areas.

Epidemiology is fundamental to understanding how diseases spread, whether through water, air, or other means. It works alongside pathology and other branches of medical science to know why a condition (including contagious diseases, but not exclusively) appears in one geographical area and not another, and what risk factors might lead to its spread. They might also seek to understand why a condition has not spread and appears unlikely to do so. Sometimes, geographical or social barriers prevent disease transmission. Understanding these barriers is fundamental to preventing disease spread.

When a disease outbreak is identified, an epidemiologist typically asks questions like:

• Why are infection rates of this disease higher than usual?
• Why are infection rates higher in this specific location?
• What is the potential for the disease to spread?
• What are the broader implications of it spreading?
• What are the likely causes of this outbreak, epidemic, or pandemic?
• What treatments are available?
• What can we do now to slow it down? What are known effective short-term and long-term strategies?

Epidemiology studies rates of infectious diseases, as well as those caused by environmental factors such as toxic spills, foodborne diseases like food poisoning or water contamination, and localized air and water pollution. Today, it's not solely about infectious diseases but also about biological, social, and environmental causes. Some epidemiologists study instances of domestic violence, addiction, or mental illness to understand their causes and effects. This means other social "diseases" such as suicide rates, substance abuse, and other non-disease-related conditions are also of interest. These conditions can also be epidemic, although not through typical biological causes.

Epidemiology focuses on the statistical analysis of distributions, the identification of patterns, and the determination of causes of a condition. It's more about examining trends than the medical aspects of a condition, although the medical component does play a part.

Core Areas of Epidemiological Study

Modern epidemiology is a broad field that extends far beyond tracking infectious diseases. If you're exploring a career in this field, understanding these specialized areas can help you identify where your interests might align. Professionals may work in roles involving one or more of the following disciplines.

Etiology and Disease Origin

Etiology focuses on studying the cause or origin of an outbreak, epidemic, or pandemic. This can be medical, environmental, or have other causes. For example, environmental health professionals working in etiology might attempt to understand and explain why some areas have higher rates of mental illness, cancer, or alcoholism. The work requires detective-like investigation to trace conditions back to their root causes, whether that's contaminated water supplies, workplace exposures, or social determinants of health.

Study of Transmission

Transmission study examines how (and if) a medical condition is transmitted from patient to patient or has another cause. Is it contagious, or does it have another source, such as foodborne contamination? Understanding transmission pathways is critical for designing effective intervention strategies. During the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2023), transmission studies helped identifypatterns of airborne spread, leading to public health recommendations on ventilation and masking.

Outbreak Investigation

This involves the detective work of examining everything related to the cause of an outbreak. Epidemiology is a medical science with all the methods and tools that designation entails-from laboratory analysis to field interviews to statistical modeling. When you hear about investigators tracking the source of a foodborne illness to a specific restaurant or farm, that's outbreak investigation in action.

Disease Surveillance

Disease surveillance involves monitoring outbreaks of disease or conditions and examining factors such as seasonal trends, regional patterns, and other indicators to support medical planning and prevention. Epidemiologists in this area focus on collective health rather than individual health. They track patterns across populations to predict where resources will be needed and when interventions should be deployed.

Forensic Epidemiology

This sub-discipline bridges the gap between medical and criminal investigations and between the examination of individual patients and the examination of causes of death. Forensic epidemiologists might work on cases involving suspected bioterrorism, workplace exposure lawsuits, or environmental contamination, where determining causation is critical to legal proceedings.

Biomonitoring

Biomonitoring examines the "body burden" of a living organism-typically looking at digestive tracts and blood systems. An epidemiologist engaged in biomonitoring work may analyze urine, blood, bile, semen, and other body fluids to determine the cause of illness or death. This work closely connects to parasitology and toxicology when investigating disease transmission and environmental exposures.

As noted above, epidemiologists are also concerned with conditions unrelated to physical medical issues. Professionals in fields like social work who deal with addiction or mental illness may use the same tools and processes as those who study disease. For example, they may examine why alcoholism is more prevalent in some areas than others, or why some cities have higher levels of workplace sickness and domestic violence.

If you're interested in pursuing this field, learn more about how to become an epidemiologist and explore public health careers.

Outbreak vs. Epidemic vs. Pandemic

Epidemiologists are concerned with the spread of conditions, including infectious diseases. The words outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic are often used interchangeably in the media and common language. However, they have distinct meanings in a scientific context that are important for understanding public health responses.

Although it doesn't matter much how the average person uses these terms, in the scientific research community, the distinctions are important for understanding the past, present, and future threat of a condition. These classifications help determine resource allocation, international cooperation requirements, and the scale of public health response needed.

Why Epidemiology Matters: A Case Study

Medical science has grown exponentially in the last century. The birth of modern medicine has brought profound improvements to our overall health, lifestyle, and longevity. Humans are living longer now on average than ever before. Public health measures such as sanitation, clean air, food hygiene, and awareness of balanced diets have played essential roles (including access to food in the Western world). The fight against disease has been a significant contributing factor to these health improvements. Epidemiology collects information on disease and other public health trends, collates and analyzes it, and produces reports for future study. This scientific investigation and detective work have helped control the spread of harmful health conditions and identify root causes where relevant.

For example, to illustrate epidemiology's importance today, CDC epidemiologists traveled to the Army Training Center at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, in 2009 to investigate several deaths. The CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report confirmed an outbreak investigation involving bacterial meningitis among Army recruits. In this unusual case, two young army trainees who were both seemingly in good health contracted a form of meningitis (Streptococcus pneumonia meningitis) and died. They belonged to the same company, and pneumonia cases were high among their squadmates.

They looked not only at the circumstances surrounding the deaths of the two individuals but also at cases where trainees were excused from training due to sickness. They examined numerous other factors and devised a solution that significantly reduced the risk of meningitis occurring at this camp and other military facilities. They advised on hygiene and procedures for illness and prescribed antibiotics to those affected.

This study demonstrates that epidemiology underpins public health policy in both preventive planning and control. This was not an isolated case. Recent studies of the spread of Ebola (in Africa in 2014) and Zika (in South America in 2015-2016) have further demonstrated precisely why studying instances of diseases, illnesses, and other conditions is just as important as treatment. The COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2023) represented perhaps the most intensive period of epidemiological work in modern history, with contact tracing, transmission modeling, and vaccine efficacy studies occurring on an unprecedented global scale.

The History of Epidemiology

Ancient to Medieval World

Although epidemiology is essentially a modern science, its history dates back centuries, predating the Enlightenment and the scientific method. As far back as classical Greece, great thinkers sought naturalistic explanations for illness rather than supernatural ones. Hippocrates was the first to push this idea in an essay called On Airs, Waters, and Places. Before, during, and after the Classical Greek period, the general perception was that sin, mischievous spirits, demonic possession, bad air, and the will of the gods (or God in early Christian communities) all caused disease and sickness.

However, without a rigorous testing method, much of the prevailing theory on the spread of illness and disease remained stuck in the past for centuries. The prevailing theory behind the rise of the Black Death in the 1340s was miasma theory (the spread of disease by bad air from pollution or rotting food). The idea adopted some of Hippocrates' theory by suggesting an environmental cause, and there is an ecological component to some conditions, though not in the way people believed at the time.

Much of medieval Europe held onto ancient supernatural notions that demonic possession, sin, and bad air caused disease. Miasma theory did not die out as a concept until the 19th century, surprisingly late given the great age of science already dawning. It remained the central belief behind disease spread, but even before the Age of Enlightenment and the birth of modern science, it had critics willing to challenge the orthodoxy.

Renaissance to the 19th Century

Around the middle of the 16th century, Girolamo Fracastoro first suggested that tiny living particles too small for people to see might cause some diseases. His hypothesis flew in the face of received wisdom about miasma theory, and it would be another 100 years before the invention of the microscope proved him right. He was also the first to suggest that populations could prevent the spread of disease through personal hygiene. Despite having little evidence to back up his hypothesis, his ideas weren't entirely fanciful. He observed several cases in which disease had been significantly reduced or eliminated through the use of fire (burning bodies and using fire barriers).

John Graunt is one of the most prominent early modern epidemiologists, though he never intended to be. A haberdasher by trade, he found a love of statistics and probability from a young age. He published the first study on what we today call the science of demographics, and he used it to calculate probable survival rates of plague patients (likely bubonic plague) during the reign of Charles II. He also invented the life table, a system still used across a range of sciences today, particularly by those who study disease incidence. Further, he found strong correlations between decreased mortality and disease, showing that in times of plague, young and healthy people were just as likely to die as the old and infirm.

Epidemiology gained another boost in the early 19th century when William Farr invented the modern system of medical statistics, building on John Graunt's work. Although he believed in now-obsolete approaches to medical science, his work collecting data on mortality demographics by age, social status, and other social factors helped his peers recognize that some diseases have social patterns. He worked with but fundamentally disagreed with fellow early epidemiologist John Snow, who theorized that water was a significant cause of the London cholera epidemic. This hypothesis would later prove accurate, and following Snow's death, Farr came to accept the changing face of modern science.

The Great Stink and Modern Epidemiology

Perhaps by accident, miasma theory drove humanity toward a more scientific and less supernaturalistic understanding of disease causes later in the 19th century. It was understandable given the evidence as it stood. Still, today we realize that correlation does not imply causation-and bad smells sometimes correlate with disease, especially when poor sanitation is the root cause.

One of the biggest and most successful public health works was the modernization of Victorian London's sewerage system, brought about by "The Great Stink." A government session at the Houses of Parliament was abandoned due to an awful smell coming from the River Thames and the pipes that fed into it. This occurred during the city's (and possibly the world's at the time) largest cholera epidemic. As a result, the British government voted to modernize sanitation, housing, and street cleanliness, replacing all the old pipes, increasing the network's size and capacity, and removing the smell that had blighted the city. The cholera epidemic ended shortly afterward.

Although it was a massive improvement for public health, the perception of the cause remained erroneous. People still believed that bad smells caused sickness, rather than understanding that excess dirt and poor sanitation caused sickness, which would also create the bad smells and the environment for disease to breed and spread. Despite this error in thinking, some proponents argued for a waterborne cause of the cholera epidemic. The rise of bacteriology in the late 19th century would shape the 20th century. Louis Pasteur's work in developing vaccine theory and pasteurization for food represented a giant leap forward. Together with the work of Edward Jenner, who designed the world's first vaccine (for smallpox) and effectively created the medical science of immunology, these advances set the stage for epidemiology's great strides in the coming century.

Epidemiology in the Modern Era

The 20th century saw several significant shifts in epidemiological thinking and science, largely thanks to the work of late-19th-century predecessors. Bacteriology was now firmly established as a medical scientific concept, as was immunology. The role of bacteria in causing some diseases continued to gain evidence, and the growing discipline of virology was gaining ground as well. The 20th century was notable for two world wars, as well as for medical advances and pandemic challenges. Spanish Flu was the most significant disease of the century, killing more people in 1918-19 than the war that had just ended. Five hundred million people were affected, and no continent was untouched. In total, between 50 million and 100 million people died from the disease, around 3%-5% of the global population in 1919.

Science was already making great strides in the early 20th century. Janet Lane-Claypon examined breast cancer survivors, comparing them to women of a similar demographic who did not have breast cancer and had never developed it. In this work, she pioneered one of the first case-control studies in medical research. Around the same time, her contemporary, Sir Ronald Ross, received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for discovering that mosquitoes transmitted the parasite that causes malaria. His discovery led to the first treatments of the condition.

Diseases that were common in the Western world in the 20th century are now rare or extinct. A major diphtheria epidemic in the USA in the early 1920s led to the development of a vaccine. The diphtheria toxoid vaccine was developed in 1923 and became widely adopted by 1925. In the 21st century, this condition is rare. The same can be said for polio, which peaked globally between 1915 and 1955. It's no coincidence that the first vaccines against this disease, introduced in 1955, led to a massive drop in infections in the Western world. The same year, Congress enacted the Polio Vaccination Assistance Act.

Vaccination led to the most remarkable success story of the 20th century: the extinction of smallpox. American epidemiologist Donald Henderson served as director of the CDC from 1960 to 1965. During this time, he devised the USAID program that would make funds available to fight smallpox and eventually eradicate the disease. Between 1967 and 1977, he spearheaded the global eradication campaign. His team recorded one of the most outstanding achievements in medical science in history. However, where old diseases that blighted global populations fell into decline (some terminally) in the early to mid-20th century, the latter half of the century provided new challenges for epidemiology.

Medical professionals finally discovered the long-suspected link between lung cancer and smoking in the 1950s. Throughout the 19th century, the disease had gone from rare to pandemic proportions. Mechanization, the industrial revolution, and the uptake of cigarette smoking increased disease instances across the Western world. Today, smoking (either firsthand or secondhand-also known as "passive smoking") accounts for approximately 80-90% of all lung cancer cases. Epidemiologists were fundamental to determining the link, analyzing not only tobacco but also other contributing substances contained in cigarette and cigar treatments and their effects on the human body.

Epidemiologists also found challenges in the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This is still an ongoing pandemic and differs from most diseases previously studied because HIV lies dormant for many years; there's no guarantee that an infected person will die from HIV-related complications or AIDS. To date, approximately 85.6 million people have been infected with HIV globally, and 40.4 million have died from the condition (per UNAIDS data). With AIDS, the challenge for modern epidemiology was identifying high-risk groups. Like syphilis, sexual behavior is a significant contributing factor to increased HIV risk. Controlling HIV's spread was as much about changing behaviors as developing treatments. The first inhibitors for this condition became available from the mid-1990s; it was arguably the most significant medical challenge of the latter half of the 20th century.

In the latter part of the 20th century, epidemiologists began working closely with geneticists. Some patients have genetic and molecular markers in their blood that put them at higher risk of certain conditions. The environment was also identified as a possible contributing factor outside the traditional epidemiology realm, but undoubtedly part of it in calculating disease risk. That's when molecular epidemiology arose as a sub-discipline to incorporate environmental factors and genetics. Working alongside biostatisticians and microbiologists, modern epidemiologists can now analyze disease risk at the molecular level.

Epidemiology doesn't just cover transmissible diseases but also social conditions that may involve genetic or environmental factors. Workplace-related illnesses are now within epidemiology's remit-these are not contagious but share a common cause for outbreaks. Food poisoningis also of special interest in epidemiology.

Non-transmissible illnesses may be a surprising area of interest for modern epidemiology, especially given the concepts behind molecular epidemiology. Today, it's widely recognized that mental illness can have both social and genetic causes. Some genes indicate that a person with that gene is at a higher risk of mental illness. However, poverty is also a significant contributing factor in instances of substance abuse, alcoholism, and domestic abuse.

If you're considering a career path that combines data analysis with public health impact, consider an online MPH or environmental health degree.

Current and Future Challenges for Epidemiology

Modern epidemiology is just over a century old. Each generation presents new threats, and as some 20th-century diseases (particularly childhood diseases) become less prevalent, epidemiological researchers and practitioners face increasing challenges elsewhere.

Bioterrorism

Since 9/11, there has been genuine concern about bioterrorism threats. This is defined as the intentional release of toxic agents, bacteria, or viruses. It can involve the deliberate release into the atmosphere or the contamination of foodstuffs and water supplies. While chemical warfare has been a reality since World War I trench warfare, there's now a threat of engineered viruses making their way into the general population. Epidemiologists may have to contend with viruses modified to attack a population. Recent US history includes several bioterrorism attacks:

• In 1984, the group Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh released salmonella into a local population to influence an election outcome.
• 2001 anthrax attacks in the US and Chile, where letters laced with the substance were sent to Senators and several members of the media. Five people died.

Some epidemiologists were concerned that rogue elements of the Russian government would release smallpox following the Soviet Union's collapse. Part of the broader concern about bioterrorism is the possibility of genetic engineering of existing viruses to make them more contagious, more virulent, and more deadly.

Climate Change Impacts

Climate change presents challenges for everyone, everywhere. This is no different for those involved in medical research of disease and disease transmission. We know that some areas of land will change dramatically-drought will be as common as flooding, and we're already seeing these effects in increasingly erratic weather.

In epidemiology, there's a direct threat: areas that have seen diseases eradicated or never experienced them may now face new risks. Arid or temperate areas that become wetter may see the arrival or return of disease-carrying mosquitoes. Studies have been conducted for the southern US states and southern Europe into the potential threat of malaria mosquitoes, Lyme disease, dengue fever, and encephalitis moving up from the south to climates more suited to their survival.

Salmonella may become more prevalent t, oo. We may see the emergence of new diseases, the adaptation of existing diseases, and new strains. There are challenges to food supply and water security in the most vulnerable places on the planet, as well as potential threats in the developing world. Farming practices may need to change due to soil erosion or a lack of water. Where food and clean water are scarce, disease can thrive.

Read more about the history of climate change to understand how environmental shifts impact disease patterns.

Globalization and Disease Spread

Globalization results from the ease of communication and travel between countries and continents. It's easier than ever to visit countries on vacation, and for citizens of other countries to come to the US-the same is true of many nations. The drawback of globalization is that it's increasingly easier for a transmissible disease to spread across the country and across the world. With greater movement of people, the challenge is the sheer number of infected or potentially infected individuals and the spread of exotic diseases out of their natural habitats. Where movement used to be a natural barrier to disease spread, it has now become its greatest ally. The COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2023) demonstrated this reality when the virus spread from Wuhan, China, to every continent within months.

Emerging and Resurging Diseases

Since the turn of the century, there have been several outbreaks of diseases unknown just a generation or two ago. Ebola is perhaps the most notable, first identified in the 1970s. Although the Zika virus has been around since the 1950s, the 2015-16 outbreak in Brazil was noteworthy for its unprecedented scale and association with congenital disabilities, leading to a WHO Public Health Emergency declaration.

In recent years, along with Zika and the hemorrhagic fevers (which include Ebola), the following diseases have experienced a resurgence or higher-than-normal infection rates:

• Dengue fever: A tropical disease carried and spread by mosquitoes that can lead to a more deadly condition called Dengue hemorrhagic fever
• Chikungunya: Another tropical disease carried and spread by mosquitoes. Mortality rates are as low as 1 per 1,000, primarily affecting the very young and very old. There is no vaccine at present.
• Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS, also known as camel flu) spreads to humans from camels. It has been identified in bats, but how it spreads from bats to camels and then to humans remains unclear.

The Anti-Vaccine Movement

There is a persistent anti-vaccine movement. In 1998, Andrew Wakefield and colleagues published a paper in The Lancet that appeared to show a link between the MMR vaccine and increased rates of autism. The academic community quickly challenged the data, and the paper was retracted in 2010 for ethical misconduct and data falsification. Despite thorough discrediting of the research, the claims have not stemmed the number of parents refusing to vaccinate their children against measles, mumps, and rubella.

The MMR vaccines came in for particular criticism. The US and other countries in the Western world have seen an increase in the number of instances of these diseases since 200,8 thanks to parents opting out of allowing their children vaccines. Epidemiology and medical science now face the challenge of controlling and limiting the incidence of these diseases. Although vaccine uptake has improved, similar movements or fears about medical science may resurface in the future. Anti-vaccine sentiment is nothing new-it has existed in various forms since Edward Jenner first formulated the first vaccine in the 19th century. The COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2023) saw a resurgence of anti-vaccine activism despite the rapid development of effective vaccines, presenting ongoing challenges for public health officials.

Big Data in Public Health

The advent of Big Data (large, cloud-based datasets) is a current challenge for those who research and apply epidemiology in practice. There are fears that the discipline, as it currently exists, risks falling behind other areas of medical research or losing relevance in the drive toward greater understanding of public health. Large-scale population studies, even with the greater collection and analysis capabilities available to those working with big data, can be incredibly time-consuming and expensive. However, there's evidence suggesting that Cloud and Big Data have advantages for public health. Epidemiologists can collect publicly available information and incorporate it into their studies-from sources as varied as up-to-the-minute news, social media, and self-reported illness. Big Data has both advantages and drawbacks, and will be harnessed in some form for future epidemiological studies.

Social Health Factors

Although most of this article has discussed epidemiology in terms of transmissible diseases (bacterial and viral), social factors are now part of the broader study. We touched on them earlier, and these are public health issues with social rather than biological causes. Although some may have a genetic or biological basis, they're essentially a result of social status or other external factors, with potential social rather than medical solutions.

Issues such as instances of mental illness and suicide risk, domestic violence or abuse, poverty (and the potential risk of disease it causes), and areas where a large number of the possible working population is registered as too sick to work all fall under this umbrella. All of these factors have further social impacts, economic impacts, and affect the livelihoods and quality of life of a given population. They're not epidemics in the traditional sense, but they are public health matters and therefore fall within the remit of epidemiology.

Frequently Asked Questions

What does an epidemiologist do daily?

Epidemiologists spend their days analyzing data, investigating disease patterns, and developing public health strategies. They might review health records, conduct statistical analyses, interview patients or healthcare providers, write reports, and communicate findings to policymakers. Some work in laboratories, others in offices, and many conduct fieldwork during outbreaks. The work combines detective skills, statistical expertise, and medical knowledge.

What's the real difference between an outbreak, epidemic, and pandemic?

An outbreak is localized (like food poisoning at a single restaurant), an epidemic affects a larger region or country (like the 2014-2016 Ebola crisis in West Africa), and a pandemic spreads globally across continents (like COVID-19 or the 1918 flu). The distinction matters because it determines the scale of response needed-from local health departments for outbreaks to international coordination for pandemics.

What education and training do you need to become an epidemiologist?

Most epidemiologists hold at least a master's degree in public health (MPH) with a focus on epidemiology. Some positions require a doctorate (PhD or DrPH). Undergraduate degrees in biology, statistics, or health sciences provide a strong foundation. Many programs include coursework in biostatistics, research methods, disease transmission, and public health policy. Practical experience through internships or fieldwork is highly valuable.

How do epidemiologists actually track disease spread?

Epidemiologists use multiple tracking methods: surveillance systems that collect data from hospitals and labs; contact tracing to identify who infected individuals have been near; geographic information systems (GIS) to map disease patterns; statistical models to predict spread; and population surveys. During COVID-19, they used wastewater testing, mobility data, and genomic sequencing to understand transmission patterns in real-time.

What are the biggest challenges facing epidemiologists today?

Current challenges include climate change enabling diseases to spread to new regions, globalization making pandemics spread faster, antibiotic resistance creating harder-to-treat infections, anti-vaccine movements reducing herd immunity, emerging diseases like novel coronaviruses, and the need to integrate massive amounts of data while protecting patient privacy. Epidemiologists must also communicate complex science effectively to the public.

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2024 US Bureau of Labor Statistics salary and job growth figures for epidemiologists reflect national data, not school-specific information. Conditions in your area may vary. Data accessed February 2026.

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Matthew Mason

MG Mason has a BA in Archaeology and MA in Landscape Archaeology, both from the University of Exeter. A personal interest in environmental science grew alongside his formal studies and eventually formed part of his post-graduate degree where he studied both natural and human changes to the environment of southwest England; his particular interests are in aerial photography. He has experience in GIS (digital mapping) but currently works as a freelance writer as the economic downturn means he has struggled to get relevant work. He presently lives in southwest England.

Latest posts by Matthew Mason (see all)

• What Is Parasitology? The Science of Parasites Explained - November 19, 2018
• Desert Ecosystems: Types, Ecology, and Global Importance - November 19, 2018
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